Sports Nutrition

'Dirty Dozen' of Dietary Supplements Named

Consumer Reports Issues List of Potentially Dangerous Supplements

April 1, 2004 -- Despite known hazards, many potentially dangerous dietary supplements are readily available for purchase in stores and on the Internet, according to a new report from Consumer Reports.

Today, the magazine released its "dirty dozen" list of dietary supplements that it says are too dangerous to be on the market.

The list includes yohimbe, bitter orange, chaparral, and andro. But researchers say the supplements are sold under many names, which makes it hard for consumers to know what they're getting.

Many of the supplements that made the list have already been banned in other countries. But researchers say regulatory barriers created by Congress have prevented the FDA from taking similar actions to protect consumers in this country.

The announcement coincides with a report on supplement safety issued today by the Institute of Medicine, which suggests that the FDA should take action against potentially hazardous dietary supplements and asks Congress to ease restraints on the agency.

Dirty Dozen of Dietary Supplements

Researchers from the consumer magazine say the supplements that made its "dirty dozen" list may cause cancer, severe liver or kidney damage, heart problems, or even death.

For example, they say the herb aristolochia has been conclusively linked to kidney failure and cancer in China, Europe, Japan, and the U.S. Yohimbe, a supplement marketed as a sexual stimulant and herbal Viagra, has been linked to heart and respiratory problems. The supplement bitter orange, whose ingredients have effects similar to those of the banned weight-loss stimulant ephedra, is also on the list of potentially dangerous supplements.

Many of these dietary supplements are sold in both single and combination products marketed for a wide variety of uses, from building muscle and losing weight to easing stress and arthritis.

Researchers divided the list into three categories based on the amount of available evidence about the dietary supplement: definitely hazardous, very likely hazardous, and likely hazardous.

Since the brand names of the products containing the dirty dozen supplement ingredients vary widely, researchers say consumers should read ingredient labels carefully and look for the following:

Definitely Hazardous

Aristolochic acid (Aristolochia, birthwort, snakeroot, snakeweed, snagree root, sangrel, serpentary, wild ginger).They list this as having caused documented human cancers, and it is linked to kidney failure.

Very Likely Hazardous -- These are banned in other countries, have an FDA warning, or show adverse effects in studies:

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, ass ear, black root, blackwort, bruisewort, consolidae radix, consound, gum plant, healing herb, knitback, knitbone, salsify, slippery root, symphytum radix, wallwort). Abnormal liver function or damage, often irreversible; deaths reported.

Androstenedione (4-androstene-3, 17-dione, andro, androstene). Increased cancer risks and decreases in "good" HDL cholesterol have been reported.

Chaparral (Larrea divaricata, creosote bush, greasewood, hediondilla, jarilla, larreastat). Abnormal liver function has been linked to use.

Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys, wall germander, wild germander). Abnormal liver function has been linked to use.

Kava (Piper methysticum, ava, awa, gea, gi, intoxicating pepper, kao, kavain, kawa-pfeffer, kew, long pepper, malohu, maluk, meruk, milik, rauschpfeffer, sakau, tonga, wurzelstock, yagona, yangona). Abnormal liver function has been linked to use.

Likely Hazardous -- These have adverse-event reports or theoretical risks.

Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium, green orange, kijitsu, neroli oil, Seville orange, shangzhou zhiqiao, sour orange, zhi oiao, zhi xhi). High blood pressure; increased risk of heart arrhythmias, heart attack, and stroke are risks associated with use.

Organ/glandular extracts (brain/adrenal/pituitary/placenta/other gland "substance" or "concentrate"). Theoretical risk of mad cow disease, particularly from brain extracts.

Lobelia (Lobelia inflata, asthma weed, bladderpod, emetic herb, gagroot, lobelie, indian tobacco, pukeweed, vomit wort, wild tobacco). Difficulty breathing and rapid heart rates are thought to be associated with this.

Pennyroyal oil (Hedeoma pulegioides, lurk-in-the-ditch, mosquito plant, piliolerial, pudding grass, pulegium, run-by-the-ground, squaw balm, squawmint, stinking balm, tickweed). Liver and kidney failure, nerve damage, convulsions, abdominal tenderness, burning of the throat are risks; deaths have been reported.

Scullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora, blue pimpernel, helmet flower, hoodwort, mad weed, mad-dog herb, mad-dog weed, quaker bonnet, scutelluria, skullcap). Abnormal liver damage.

Yohimbe (Pausinystalia yohimbe, johimbi, yohimbehe, yohimbine) Blood pressure changes, heart beat irregularities and heart attacks have been reported.

Experts say it's important to tell your doctor about any dietary supplement you may be taking. Not only do many supplements have significant side effects, but they may also interfere with the effectiveness of prescribed medications, such as birth control pills.

------------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCES: Consumer Reports, May 2004. News release, Consumer's Union. FDA. Institute of Medicine

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Beware of Untested Weight-Loss Pills

We've heard about the dangers of popping weight-loss pills. But there are safe ways to drop extra pounds using supplements -- yes, even ephedra -- and prescriptions.

Seventeen days of taking usnic acid to promote weight loss was all it took for Jennifer Rosenthal of Long Beach, Calif., to go from being a healthy, active 28-year-old to being in a coma on life support. An emergency liver transplant saved her life.

Rosenthal's story, though extreme, points to the problem of the many untested and unregulated products sold on the Internet and in some drug and health-food stores.

"This is a young woman who almost lost her life," said Rosenthal's transplant surgeon, Ronald W. Busuttil, MD, in an interview with The New York Times. "Although she's got her life back now, she has to be under lifelong medical care. Her life has been altered forever. The fact that you can get these things over the Internet is mind boggling."

Usnic acid is an antibacterial substance made from lichens. But online marketers sell it as a weight-loss drug and performance enhancer. Since it falls under the FDA category of a dietary supplement, its sale and use is entirely unregulated.

In that regard, usnic acid is not unlike ephedra, another weight-loss pill that is sold online and in many thousands of neighborhood health-food and drugstores. Ephedra has been implicated in the February death of Baltimore Orioles pitcher Steve Bechler, who succumbed to heat stroke on a Broward County, Fla., practice field after reportedly taking an ephedra-containing weight-loss supplement.

Does all this mean there are no useful, safe weight-loss drugs?

Safe Weight-Loss Pills

If you're really serious about taking weight-loss pills, there's a safer way to go about it. First, work with a medical professional to develop a treatment plan that fits your needs.

There's no reason to go trolling the Internet for weight-loss magic, says Steven Heymsfield, MD, deputy director of the New York Obesity Research Center at St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital in New York City. There are safe drugs that can really make a big difference in getting to a healthy weight.

There are three drugs most commonly prescribed for weight loss.

Phentermine, an appetite suppressant, was approved for use in 1959 and is the most commonly prescribed prescription because it costs less than the other major drugs. Some users report it can make them feel jumpy.

Xenical inhibits lipase -- an enzyme that breaks down fat in the intestines. Xenical decreases the amount of fat your body absorbs from food by 30%, which results in lower calorie intake. But all that undigested fat can make sudden, unwelcome appearances in the form of diarrhea.

Meridia increases levels of brain chemicals that help reduce appetite. Appetite-suppressants work by increasing serotonin or catecholamine chemicals that alter mood and appetite through means that are not well understood. Since Meridia can raise blood pressure and heart rate, people with any kind of heart disease shouldn't take this drug.

These drugs are all moderately useful and approved for use over various periods of time, says Heymsfield. But increasingly we are seeing these used in combinations or cocktails to decrease side effects and maintain weight loss, which tends to slow over time. Phen-pro is a weight-loss cocktail that combines phentermine with Prozac or other antidepressants. The use of the antidepressant in these cocktails is not to treat depression. No one is quite sure exactly why these combinations appear to improve weight loss. Some doctors also will prescribe combinations of Xenical or Meridia with phentermine.

Along with the cocktails, other drugs are increasingly being used for weight loss, says Heymsfield. Some of these include:

Topamax, an antiseizure medication approved for use in the treatment of epilepsy
Wellbutrin, an antidepressant

Using prescription drugs that aren't officially approved by the FDA for weight loss is commonplace, but the doctor needs to be very, very careful, says Heymsfield. You don't want a truck driver or someone who operates heavy machinery taking an antiseizure medication because fatigue or euphoria can be a side effect.

And medical researchers are pressing very hard to develop new weight-loss pills. One of the most promising drugs in development is Axokine, says Heymsfield. It is in the final phase of testing, and it not only looks like it will be important for weight loss, but it may also help people with type 2 diabetes.

What About Ephedra?

There's no doubt that ephedra can be dangerous when misused, says Heymsfield. Consumers think it is some benign herbal preparation because they can get it at the health-food store, but it is a real drug with potentially dangerous side effects in a very small minority of the people who use it.

But even Heymsfield, who has been a vocal critic of ephedra, says it can be used safely -- under a doctor's supervision.

Ephedra's safety depends on the dosage, frequency of use, and medical condition of the user, says Ray Sahelian, MD, doctor in private practice in Marina Del Rey, Calif., who has written extensively on the safety and efficacy of dietary supplements. A young person with a healthy heart who takes ephedra in reasonable doses, eats a normal meal, drinks plenty of fluids, and is not involved in heavy physical activity in hot weather is not likely to have any serious side effects, he says.

However, a person with a weak heart or with high blood pressure who skips meals, is dehydrated, or works out in hot, humid weather will have an untoward reaction, perhaps even including a fatality.

There is no magic pill for weight loss, says Heymsfield. But an experienced doctor can develop a treatment plan that can result in much better overall health for the patient.

Originally published March 7, 2003.

Medically updated Dec. 16, 2003.

SOURCES: Ray Sahelian, MD, Marina Del Rey, Calif. Steven Heymsfield, MD, deputy director, New York Obesity Research Center, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital, New York. News release, FDA.

*~~~~~~~~&~~~~~~~&~~~~~~~~&~~~~~~*

What are anabolic steroids?

"Anabolic steroids" is the familiar name for synthetic substances related to the male sex hormones (androgens). They promote the growth of skeletal muscle (anabolic effects) and the development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effects), and also have some other effects. The term "anabolic steroids" will be used through-out this report because of its familiarity, although the proper term for these compounds is "anabolic-androgenic" steroids.

Anabolic steroids were developed in the late 1930s primarily to treat hypogonadism, a condition in which the testes do not produce sufficient testosterone for normal growth, development, and sexual functioning. The primary medical uses of these compounds are to treat delayed puberty, some types of impotence, and wasting of the body caused by HIV infection or other diseases.

During the 1930s, scientists discovered that anabolic steroids could facilitate the growth of skeletal muscle in laboratory animals, which led to use of the compounds first by bodybuilders and weightlifters and then by athletes in other sports. Steroid abuse has become so widespread in athletics that it affects the outcome of sports contests.

More than 100 different anabolic steroids have been developed, but they require a prescription to be used legally in the United States. Most steroids that are used illegally are smuggled in from other countries, illegally diverted from U.S. pharmacies, or synthesized in clandestine laboratories.

What are steroid alternatives?
19-norandrostenedione is the nandrolone equivalent of androstenedione. It is an efficient precursor to its active steroid form, and overall is considered nothing short of a well-proven anabolic. Although like androstenedione this hormone is open to estrogen conversion in its initial state, the tendency for 19-nor steroids to interact with the necessary enzyme is very low. We therefore see very few reported problems with water/fat retention and gynecomastia, even when this supplement is taken in heavier cycles. Most users report a solid gain of muscle mass, typically with an accompanying loss of body fat and increased visibility.

Using the transdermal product's is a particularly advantageous way of administering this hormone actuall contains a combination of both this and the following nandrolone precursors), as this method of delivery bypasses the first pass by the liver that can deactivate greater than 90% of the ingested hormone. Transdermal deliver allows for near total absorption of the compound into the blood stream. Impact™ additionally uses DIM (diindolylmethane) in this product, and anti-estrogenic substance that works by enhancing the metabolic breakdown of estrogens. Though it may seem unneeded, it was added as a protective measure to combat the actions of any minimal estrogen buildup that could possibly result.

19-nor 4-androstenediol:
Like 4-androstenediol, this prohormone utilizes a more active enzyme in its biotransformation to the steroid nandrolone. It is therefore slightly more potent in comparison to 19-norandrostenedione, however both of these two nandrolone precursors are considered solidly effective anabolics. Only those extremely sensitive to estrogen or using unusually high amounts will likely ever notice a difference in estrogen conversion rates, although technically this prohormone would be more suitable in this regard as it avoids any possible direct path of conversion (the same trait noted with 4-androstenediol). Otherwise these two precursors are really interchangeable. Combining these two prohormones actually seems to be the most advantageous method of taking nandrolone precursors, as this utilizes two distinct paths of metabolism for the optimal buildup of active steroid in the blood stream.

19-nor 5-androstenediol:
This prohormone is a 19-nor form of 5-androstenediol. While we don't have much to report about 5androstenediol, there is even less to report about this compound. Its conversion rate to nandrolone is low, and there likewise seems to be little in terms of positive feedback. It seems to be more the product of a clear manufacturing opportunity than of research and successful application. Some may find a use for this compound, but it is clearly not the efficient nandrolone precursor we see in 19-nor 4-androstenediol.

1,4-androstadiene-3-one,17b-ol:
Boldenone is a popular anabolic steroid, manufactured as boldenone undecylenate in several veterinary drug preparations including Ganabol, Equipoise, Ultragan, Maxigan and Equi-gan. Structurally boldenone (1,4-androstadiene-3-one,17b-ol) is a close derivative of testosterone (4-androstene-3-one,17b-ol), differing from this androgen only by the addition of a second double bond in the A-ring of the structure (between carbons one and two). Likewise its direct precursor 1,4-androstadienedione differs from testosterone's direct precursor 4-androstenedione only by this same alteration, and converts to active form via the same widely distributed body enzyme (17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, which interconverts these hormones between inactive 17-keto and active 17-beta hydroxy form). Very effective for increasing RBC blood plasma levels, enhancing recovery, and overall muscle growth.

5-alpha androstanediol:
(5-alpha androstanediol) is the first dihydrotestosterone (DHT) prohormone to be developed. DHT is typically thought of as a side effect hormone, however this is more a product of misunderstanding than fact. In the human body DHT is much more active than testosterone, and is produced locally in tissues sensitive to androgen action such as the prostate, skin, scalp and certain areas of the central nervous system. It is for this reason that its presence is usually associated with side effects, however it activates the same cellular receptor that testosterone does. The applications for a DHT prohormone are actually quite numerous, as it represents the only truly non-aromatizable (will not convert to estrogen)

~ ^ ~ * ~ ^ ~ * ~ ^ ~ * ~ ^ ~

FLEX QUICK-FIX

GUIDE:

CELL VOLUMIZING

WHAT IS IT? Cell volumizing is simply increasing and maintaining muscle-cell size to enlarge muscles and enhance enzymatic actions within the cell.

WHAT INCREASES CELL VOLUME? For bodybuilders, the best cell volumizers are creatine, glycogen, plasma expanders (specifically glycerol) and water.

HOW DO I INCREASE EACH OF THESE?

Creatine: Use 3-5 grams (g) of creatine per day for a maintenance dose (and try adding 250-500 milligrams of alpha-lipoic acid daily).
Glycogen: Increase endogenous glycerol by loading with the equivalent of 40 g of carbs per hour, downing the bulk of your carbs postworkout.
Plasma expanders: Take 10 g of glycerol with 30 g of water. Important: Use only sparingly, such as immediately precontest to increase vascularity.
Water: Drink eight or more eight-ounce glasses of water (two quarts total) per day, plus four ounces for every 15 minutes of exercise.

ANY SPECIAL SECRET BLEND FOR CELL VOLUMIZING? Try taking 3 g of creatine, 50 g of carbs, 10 g of glutamine, 20 g of protein and a liter or two of water after a workout for a week or two. you'll volumize big time!

(The Above Taken from "Flex," March 2003 Swimsuit issuse)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Nutrition

Nutrients are substances necessary for proper bodily function. Some are required in large quantities (macronutrients) and some are required is small quantities (micronutrients). There are 4 types of macronutrients: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Water and two types of micronutrients: Vitamins and Minerals.

Macronutrients

Proteins

Proteins are the basic structure of all living cells. Proteins are used in making hormones, blood plasma transport systems, and enzymes. The basic building blocks of proteins are called amino acids. There are two types of proteins complete and incomplete. Amino acids are categorized as essential and non-essential. Of the twenty amino acids that have been identified, nine are considered essential amino acids those that are not manufactured by the body, these must come from dietary intake. The body can manufacture the non-essential amino acids from the by-products of carbohydrate metabolism. Amino Acids are crucial for proper Central Nervous System (CNS) function.

Non-Essential Amino Acids

Alanine - provides energy for muscle tissue, brain and CNS; aids antibody production to enhance the immune system; helps metabolize sugars and organic acids.

Arginine - improves immune response to bacteria, viruses and tumor cells; promotes healing and liver regeneration; aids the release of growth hormones for muscle growth and tissue repair.

Aspartic Acid (Asparagine) - aids in the excretion of ammonia, which is toxic to the CNS; may increase resistance to fatigue and increase endurance.

Cysteine - antioxidant protection against radiation and pollution; slows the aging process; deactivates free radicals; neutralizes toxins; aids in protein synthesis. Crucial for the skin development aiding in the recovery from burns and surgical procedures. Hair and skin are comprised of 10-14% Cysteine.

Glycine - aids in the release of oxygen during the cell-making process. Important for hormone production in strengthening the immune system.

Glutamic Acid (Glutamine) - improves mental capabilities; helps healing of ulcers; reduces fatigue; helps control alcoholism, schizophrenia and sugar cravings.

Taurine - stabilizes membranes excitability in the control of epileptic seizures. Controls biochemical changes responsible for the aging process; aids in the excretion of free radicals.

Proline - promotes proper joint and tendon function; strengthens heart muscles.

Serine - storage source of glucose for the liver and muscles, antibody production enhances the immune system, synthesizes fatty acid covering around nerve fibers (insulator).

Tyrosine - transmission of nerve impulses to the brain; fights depression; improves memory and mental alertness; promotes the proper function of the adrenal, thyroid and pituitary glands.

Essential Amino Acids

Histidine - hemoglobin component; used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, allergic diseases, ulcers & anemia. A deficiency may cause hearing problems.

Isoleucine and Leucine - mental alertness, also provides manufacturing components for other essential biochemical components in the body, which are utilized for the production of energy and upper brain stimulants.

Lysine - Insures adequate absorption of calcium; helps form collagen (component of bone, cartilage and connective tissues); aids in the production of antibodies, hormones & enzymes. Lysine may be effective against herpes by improving the balance of nutrients that reduce viral growth. A deficiency may result in tiredness, inability to concentrate, irritability, bloodshot eyes, retarded growth, hair loss, anemia & reproductive problems.

Methionine - a sulfur source, which prevents disorders of the hair, skin and nails. Lowers cholesterol by increasing the liver's production of lecithin and reduces liver fat build-up. Protects the kidneys; a natural chelating agent for heavy metals; regulates the formation of ammonia and creates ammonia-free urine thereby reducing bladder irritation; promotes healthy hair growth.

Phenylalanine - allows brain to produce Norepinephrine used for the transmission of signals between nerve cells and the brain; regulates hunger, antidepressant; improves memory and mental alertness.

Threonine - a component of collagen, Elastin, and enamel protein; reduces liver fat build-up; promotes proper digestive system function and metabolism.

Tryptophan - a relaxant, alleviates insomnia, prevents migraine; reduces anxiety and depression; promotes proper immune system function. It reduces the risk of cardiovascular spasms. Works in conjunction with Lysine to lower cholesterol levels.

Valine - Promotes mental health, muscle coordination and tempers emotions.

Other protein comes from the recycling of enzymes and other proteins. Protein is synthesized in all tissues in the body; however, the liver and muscles are the most active. The body synthesizes about 300 grams of protein per day even though average intake is only 70 grams.

Proteins that contain all nine essential amino acids in sufficient quantity to sustain life are called complete proteins. The protein efficiency ratio (PER) is a measurement of protein's completeness. Protein is rated according to various indices. The most common measurement being the Biological Value or BV of the protein. The higher the BV value the more readily the protein is absorbed by the body. Eggs have the highest BV value (100). Whey protein’s value is close to 100 while beans have a BV of 49. Ratings of greater than 100 refer to the chemical score of an amino acid pattern in a reference protein to a test protein and not the BV.

Meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs contain complete proteins. Incomplete proteins such as vegetables, grains, seeds, and nuts are those which do not contain all nine essential amino acids by themselves. However, combinations of incomplete protein foods or mutual supplementation can supply all nine essential amino acids such as beans with rice or peanut butter on wheat bread. Therefore vegetarians can get all the amino acids required by combining incomplete protein foods. It is not necessary to combine proteins at the same meal as many people believe. Therefore a breakfast of one incomplete protein and a dinner of another incomplete protein will provide the benefits of eating a complete protein.

Examples of Complete Combinations of Incomplete Proteins

Grains & Legumes

Grains & Nuts/Seeds

Legumes & Nuts/Seeds

Grains & Dairy

peanut butter sandwich

rice cakes/peanut butter

chickpea humus

cereal with milk

rice and beans

roll with sesame seeds

trail mix

macaroni & cheese

vegetable stir-fry & rice

banana-nut bread

bean soup & sesame seeds

yogurt with granola

chili & wheat bread

oat-nut bread

cheese sandwiches

tortillas & beans

rice pudding

pea soup & roll

Examples of Protein rich foods:

High Fat - Meat, salmon, eggs, peanut butter, milk, cheese

Low Fat - Tuna, egg whites, red beans, skim milk, non-fat cheese

Proteins begin digestion in the stomach but are primarily digested in the small intestine and metabolized by the liver for the building of tissue. Proteins that are not required for building can be utilized as an energy source and provide 4 calories per gram. About 98% of the protein from animal sources and about 80% of the protein from vegetable sources is absorbed by the body.

Fasting causes the body to use protein as an energy source even to the point of breaking down vital tissues such as organs and muscles to use as an energy source. Excess protein, not utilized for tissue repair or growth or as an energy source is converted by the body to fat and stored.

Protein requirements depend on the individual and daily activity. Tissue growth, whether due to growth, injury, weight training, pregnancy effect protein requirements. During illness, protein is not only required for repair but is generally used as an energy source. According to RDA requirements, an adult should consume approximately 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight on a daily basis (0.8 grams or protein per kg of body weight) as a minimum requirement. As an example, a 150-pound person should consume approximately 50 grams of protein daily. This translates to 200 calories of protein daily. As a general rule, for intense weight training, up to 1 gram per pound of body weight may be consumed.

Since protein metabolism produces nitrogen in the body this creates an extra workload for the kidneys and liver to eliminate the excess. Dehydration can occur because the kidneys require increased amounts of water to dilute the nitrogen. Dehydration can impede workout performance. It's therefore important to adequately hydrate when consuming increased levels of protein.

Hair-loss and thinning, as well as, brittle and discolored fingernails can be external manifestations of protein deficiencies. Internal ramifications can be muscle wasting, weak ligaments and cellular dysfunction since amino acids will be in short supply. Muscle growth will also be limited or unavailable due to an insufficient amount of protein.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are utilized for energy, both instant and sustained. When insufficient carbohydrates are taken in, the body must utilize proteins for energy even to the point of catabolizing muscle tissue for energy.

Digestive enzymes in the small intestines break down the carbohydrates into glucose. The glucose can be immediately utilized by the body or stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver. The muscles can store about 20 minutes of glycogen for energy. The bloodstream can hold about an hour of glucose for energy. If glucose levels are maximized and all glycogen storage locations are full then the excess glucose is converted to fat by the liver and stored in adipose tissue or fat cells. There is really no limit to the amount of fat that a body can store. According to studies at the University of Massachusetts, carbohydrates are generally converted to fat at the rate of 75% where 25% of the carbohydrates are used in the conversion process.

There are three types of carbohydrates Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars and are the basic unit of carbohydrate. Examples of Monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are composed of two Monosaccharides. Examples of Disaccharides are table sugar (sucrose) which is composed of fructose and glucose also milk sugar (lactose) which is composed of glucose and galactose

Polysaccharides are composed of multiple Monosaccharides. Examples of Polysaccharides are starches (bread, fruit, grain, pasta, rice). These are also called complex carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates should comprise approximately 60% of the daily caloric intake. Therefore, for a 3000-calorie total daily intake, 1800 of those calories should be carbohydrates.

Fiber is a form of carbohydrate. Approximately 20 grams of dietary fiber is required in our diets. Fiber facilitates elimination and decreases appetite as a bulking agent. Fiber also inhibits the absorption of cholesterol into the blood stream. It has also been shown that fiber slows the absorption of sucrose into the bloodstream. This can be important in the treatment of type II diabetes. Too much fiber in the diet can restrict the absorption of necessary vitamins and minerals. Excess carbohydrates are converted into fat by the liver and stored in adipose tissue.

Sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream within minutes. Consuming large amounts of sugar prior to exercise can actually inhibit performance. This produces a drastic increase in blood sugar. This causes the pancreas to secrete large amounts of insulin to metabolize the sugar. All this insulin inhibits the metabolization of fat by the muscles. Therefore, the muscles rely more on glycogen, which is in limited supply. The insulin reduces blood sugar level, which is already being reduced by the muscle utilization of glycogen stores for energy production. The blood sugar level reduces to a level, which may not only cause fatigue but dizziness as well. Therefore consumption of excess sugar prior to exercise reduces performance and endurance.

Carbohydrate Loading

Carbohydrate loading is when an athlete depletes and then force-feeds carbohydrates over a period of several days. Carbohydrates are first depleted, for example on a long fast run, then large amounts of carbohydrates eaten. The theory is that the body will overcompensate and store extra glycogen.

Carbohydrate Stacking

This technique requires the consumption of several different kinds of carbohydrates each assimilated by the body at different rates based on their glycemic value. Eating a high glycemic food provides immediate energy while a low glycemic food provides energy at a slower controlled rate. This technique provides greater endurance for athletes.

Fats

Fat is required for the production of cell membranes, blood lipids (body fat), bile (fat emulsifier), steroids and vitamin D. Fats molecules are made up of glycerol and fatty acids.

Body fat is also instrumental in body temperature regulation as insulation. Minimum body fat percentages of 7% for men and 12% for women are recommended. Fats are also utilized for the transport and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. In addition, fats are the only source of linoleic acid, which is required for skin growth and maintenance. Minimum daily requirement for unsaturated fat is 10 grams and 15 grams is preferred.

Types of Fat

Characteristics

Sources

Saturated

Solid at room temp, raises blood cholesterol

Animal sources, coconut, palm oil

Unsaturated

Liquid at room temperature

Plant sources

Hydrogenated

Unsaturated converted chemically to Saturated

Regular Margarine

Polyunsaturated

Lowers blood cholesterol

Safflower, corn, soy, sunflower, fish

Monosaturated

No effect on blood cholesterol

Canola, olive, peanut oils

Fats are digested by the enzyme lipase in the small intestines with the assistance of bile salts as emulsifiers. They are then transported through the bloodstream with the assistance of lipoproteins (fat + protein coating + phospholipids) and stored as Triglyceride (glycerol + 3 particles of fatty acids) in fat cells. They are then released into the bloodstream as fatty acids when energy is required.

The fatty acids travel through the bloodstream and are combined with glucose to burn the combination as energy. The combination of fatty acids and glucose is necessary for energy production. Inadequate carbohydrate availability will result in incomplete fat metabolization producing unused lipids called ketones and leading to a chemical imbalance in the blood known as ketosis. Organ and muscle tissue may be metabolized to provide glucose from the breakdown of protein. Most of the weight loss that occurs by severe carbohydrate restricted diets are from water loss as the kidneys attempt to rid the body of the ketones.

Fat is essential to survival. A fat-less diet can lead to severe problems. Linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid, is used by the liver to manufacture arachidonic acid. This super polyunsaturated fat is used in cell membranes along with protein. When needed, this fatty acid is converted into a group of chemicals that regulate blood pressure, contractions in childbirth, blood clotting, peristalsis (gut motion), and the immune system. These chemicals are short lived and are manufactured locally as needed.

Cholesterol belongs to the same chemical family as steroids and is related to fat. It is important for the production of cell membranes, myelin sheaths around nerves, sex hormones, bile, and vitamin D.

Dietary cholesterol is the cholesterol consumed from the diet. Blood Serum cholesterol is the amount of cholesterol circulating in the bloodstream. The two are not closely related. Some people consume large quantities of dietary cholesterol and have a low serum cholesterol level. And, conversely, some people have high blood serum levels and consume very little dietary cholesterol. Conversion from dietary to blood serum cholesterol varies for each person and ranges from 20% to 90% of the amount consumed.

Blood serum cholesterol levels should remain below 200 mg per deciliter to be considered "normal" according to recent studies. This number represents only 10% of the total amount of cholesterol in the body. The rest is contained in cell membranes and other body tissues. The National Cholesterol Education Program recommends a dietary cholesterol consumption of no more than 300 mg per day. The body requires no intake of cholesterol but manufactures all the cholesterol it needs from dietary fat and produces about 1000 mg per day.

There are basically two types of Cholesterol transport systems, Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) and High Density Lipoproteins (HDL). Each type is a fat carrying protein. LDL, the bad cholesterol carrier, transports cholesterol to the cells and is associated with Arteriosclerosis or hardening of the arterial walls. HDL, the good cholesterol carrier, transports cholesterol to the liver where it is processed for excretion or broken down for other uses. Monosaturated and Polyunsaturated fats lower LDL levels and increase HDL whereas Saturated fats increase LDL levels. The goal is therefore to minimize the LDL cholesterol by reducing the dietary intake of saturated fats. The food label may tout "no cholesterol" but the body manufactures cholesterol from saturated fats.

Arteriosclerosis is a condition where the arteries become occluded. This is caused by a lesion, which develops just under the inner lining of the arterial wall. This swelling, composed of fibrous protein, accumulates LDL carried cholesterol as blood platelets begin to stick to the damaged area. This accumulation reduces the inner diameter of the artery and subsequently leads to a decreased flow of blood through the artery. The platelets continue to accumulate at the injured site until a clot is formed, blocking all blood flow to the heart. The area of the heart normally being fed by this artery becomes injured. This is known as a heart attack.

Cardiovascular health is a result of proper diet and exercise. Genetics may predispose someone to high blood pressure or heart disease; however, diet, exercise and medication can lessen the impact and improve longevity.

Water

Water is essential for all energy production in the body. Water is also used for temperature regulation and waste elimination and is essential to cell processes. An inadequate supply of water can result in up to a 30% reduction of energy. Between 50% and 70% of the body weight is water. Insufficient water in the body results in a decrease of blood volume thereby reducing the overall oxygen transport ability of the blood to properly supply the muscles during exercise. Since blood is used to regulate body temperature, inadequate cooling of the body occurs. The heart rate increases as the cardiovascular system is stressed and overheating occurs leading to possible heat stroke or heat exhaustion. We can survive without other nutrients for several weeks. However, we can only survive without water for about one week. Water is used to emulsify solutions within the body and transport them to the various tissues including the transport of waste byproducts.

Thirst is not an accurate measure of the body's water requirement. Age and environment alter the thirst mechanism. Therefore, a quantitative schedule must be utilized to adequately hydrate the body. Two hours prior to exercising in a hot environment, the participant should consume 2-3 cups of water and another 1-2 cups about 15 minutes before exercising. During exercise, about 4 ounces of water should be consumed every 15 minutes to replace water lost through sweat and maintain blood volume. As a guide for each pound of body weight lost through sweating while exercising, drink two 8oz. glasses of water. A loss of only two-percent of body weight through sweating can bring on the onset of dehydration. Adults should drink about 2 1/2 quarts of water per day.

Early signs of dehydration include dizziness, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. Advanced dehydration is manifested by rapid pulse, shortness of breath, deep yellow urine, blurred vision and hearing loss.

Cold water is absorbed into the body from the stomach faster than warm water. Recent studies suggest that drinks containing up to 10% sugar are almost as readily absorbed from the stomach. These sugary drinks have been shown to improve endurance in events lasting 2 to 3 hours. However, for fat burning purposes, consumption of sugary drinks will provide carbohydrate energy to the exercising muscles and possibly stave off fat metabolization for use as energy.

Therefore, if your intent is performance, then consume sports drinks. However, if the purpose of the exercise session is to burn fat, then drink water only. The glycogen stores in the muscles will run out in about 20 minutes and the body will be forced to metabolize stored fat for continued energy.

Consumption of salt in excess of recommended dietary requirements draws water out of the cells thereby impairing cellular function. Salt depletion may occur during endurance type exercises and when consuming water only. Salt tablets are not recommended because they draw water out of the body and into the stomach. In cold weather, urine production is increased therefore it is just as important to properly hydrate in cold weather environments as it is in hot weather.